The Anishinaabe call me Grandfather Birch. I am the forest, the protector, the giver, the hearth. My silver leaves, shimmering green and gold with the seasons, decoration & delight. I am ever-watching, a protective presence in the woodlands, eyes and ears attuned to the people. Anishinabewaki, Bdewakantuwan, Bodwewadmi (Potawatomi), Hoocak (Ho-Chunk), Myaamia, Ochethi Sakowin, Odawa, Omaeqnomenew-ahkew (Menominee), Sisseton and Wyandot. I grow, live, & die, leaving the earth with my white-bright fallen trunks, a gift to the forest and those who use it for their livelihoods. Moose, deer, birds, hares; pine, maple, spruce, fir; these are my friends, my brothers of the forest.
My role is that of a caretaker; my duty is to share my gifts with the people. My bark is used for life-giving crafts, a foundational material. Through my bark I give the people the gift of fire, of materials, and of crafting. My sap gives them energy to sustain themselves on long voyages through the forest when other food is scarce. My twigs make a tea that can cure stomach ailments. The people use my gifts to create life.
Wiigwaasaatig
Paper Birch
White Birch
Plant Identification
Paper birch is native across the North American continent, from Northern Canada south to New England and the Great Lakes regions. The Anishinaabe name is wiigwaasaatig.
The Latin name for this plant is Betula papyrifera. Betula is the name given by Linnaeus for birch trees, which are also native in Europe, and papyrifera refers to the paper-like qualities of the bark.
The scientific name was given by Humphry Marshall, one of the first white settlers born in North America to study botany. His 1785 text Arbustum Americanum: The American Grove is the first botanical publication of plants from the American colonies. It was sent back to Europe as a catalogue of American plants to be considered for gardeners and plant collectors. The name "paper birch" reduces the myriad uses and relationships of the plant to just one - paper - that was most visible to European settlers.
Colonial Violence and Naming
Colonial Taxonomy
Ecological Profile
Wiigwaasaatig is distributed across the North American continent between the northern continental US up to Northern Canada. It is a pioneer or volunteer species and grows quickly in disturbed soils with plentiful sunlight. In the forests of the Great Lakes region, it grows in community with Quivering Aspen, Black Spruce, White Spruce, and Jack Pine. The leaves are eaten by moose and deer and the bark by beaver and porcupines. It is the favorite tree of the yellow-bellied sapsucker, a woodpecker who drills into the tree and eats the sweet sap inside. It has shallow roots no deeper than 24" and a short lifespan of 70-140 years.
In Anishinaabe culture, the birch is one of the most important and sacred plants. It is considered sacred because it comes from the air, being a gift given by the Thunderbirds and given many virtuous qualities to share with the Anishinaabe (Geniusz). It is known as Grandfather Birch for its generosity in giving so much to the people. The tree features in many myths and stories. In one of them, the original man Naanabozho angers the Thunderbirds who attack him with lightning bolts from the sky. Wiigwaasaatig takes pity and protects from the blasts, which is how the paper birch got its black marks (Geniusz).
The birch is a provider of many gifts for the Anishinaabe and many other native communities. Birch bark is a foundational material and can be crafted for endless uses, including makaoon (vessels) for gathering, storing, and cooking; as a waterproof and sturdy material for wigwam roofs and for canoes; and as a scroll for recording sacred ceremonies. People can also use various aspects of the plant for food, tea, and medicine. The bark is also highly flammable and used as fire starter.
The Anishinaabe consider wiigwaasaatig kin. The plant takes care of the people both in times of crisis and times of plenty. The gifts the tree gives to the people, especially through its bark, make a way of life possible. It also provides food and habitat for many other animals, both while it stands and after it falls, creating important ecological relationships with all species of the woods where it grows.
Indigenous Knowledge and Cultural Relationships
Uses
Human and Non-Human Relationships
Sources
Betula papyrifera. (n.d.). Retrieved February 14, 2026, from https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/tree/betpap/all.html
Geniusz, M. S., & Geniusz, A. F. (2015). Plants have so much to give us, all we have to do is ask: Anishinaabe botanical teachings (W. D. Geniusz, Ed.). University of Minnesota Press.
Goulais, B. (2006, December 13). Ojibwe scrolls come full circle. Welcome to Anishinaabe.Ca! https://www.anishinaabe.ca/ojibwe-scrolls-come-full-circle/
Humphry Marshall—History of Early American Landscape Design. (n.d.). Retrieved April 20, 2026, from https://heald.nga.gov/mediawiki/index.php/Humphry_Marshall
Wiigwaasaatig (na) | | the Ojibwe People’s Dictionary. (n.d.). Retrieved February 14, 2026, from https://ojibwe.lib.umn.edu/main-entry/wiigwaasaatig-na
Baakwaanaatig
Staghorn Sumac
Plant Identification
Staghorn Sumac is native to woodland edges and other marginal habitats in Canada and the United States, from Ontario/Quebec south to Georgia. The Ojibwe name is baakwaanaatig, and the Dakota name is čhaŋzí.
The Latin name is Rhus typhina. Rhus comes from the Greek for “flow”, referencing the plant’s milky sap, and typhina means rough or hairy in reference to the plant’s fuzzy branches. The common name also references the fuzzy branches, as they look like a deer’s antlers in velvet. As is typical, western names for this plant focus on visual characteristics over relationships or other ways of knowing about the plant.
The plant was named by Linnaeus from across the ocean as part of the western project of categorizing all plants into one system.
Colonial Violence and Naming
Colonial Taxonomy
Ecological Profile
This plant grows in open fields, along roadsides, woodland edges, and other disturbed areas. It prefers dry and rocky soil and spreads by sending out shoots from its roots. The dense branches offer shelter for small animals, and the bright red berries provide food for birds and other creatures. They are an important species for recovering disturbed landscapes.
Staghorn sumac has been used by indigenous peoples for centuries. The wood may be burned in ceremonial fires, and the leaves are used in smoking and offering mixtures when they turn red in the fall. Dakota and Ojibwe people leave gifts of tobacco when harvesting berries to show respect for the plant.
Staghorn sumac has many uses as food, medicine, and as a dye. If picked when they are dry, the berries can be kept all winter. They can be used for a pleasant and refreshing lemonade-type drink and a tea. The Anishinaabe use the blossoms for a tea that cures stomachaches. The pulp of the interior of the stem make a remarkable bright yellow dye.
Staghorn sumac berries provide a bright pop of color during the winter months when the landscape is blanketed in snow and the trees have lost their leaves. These plants provide many gifts to the indigenous peoples who have lived with them for centuries, and provide a focus point for all creatures to meet each other during the winter months. Because it spreads easily and enjoys poor soils, it can be applied as an effective erosion control and renaturalization for disturbed sites.
Uses
Indigenous Knowledge and Cultural Relationships
Human and Non-Human Relationships
Geniusz, M. S., & Geniusz, A. F. (2015). Plants have so much to give us, all we have to do is ask: Anishinaabe botanical teachings (W. D. Geniusz, Ed.). University of Minnesota Press.
Staghorn Sumac. (n.d.). NATIFS. Retrieved February 14, 2026, from https://natifs.org/blog/ingredient-profile/staghorn-sumac/
Staghorn Sumac | The UFOR Nursery & Lab. (n.d.). Retrieved May 5, 2026, from https://trees.umn.edu/nursery-tour/species/sust
Sources
Tsu'yaa'wa tsi'sinakĭa
Indian Paintbrush
Plant Identification
Tsu'yaa'wa tsi'sinakĭa is a small flowering plant common in the American mountain west, desert southwest, and northern Mexico. In the Zuni language the name translates to “hummingbird all sucking food” (Coxe). While this species is native to North America, different species of paintbrushes can be found from Alaska to the Andes.
There are many species of paintbrush in North America, and the colonial name for this specific plant is Castilleja integra. The Castilleja genus was named in the 1770’s by Jose Celestino Mutis, a Spanish settler in South America, in honor of the Spanish botanist and professor Domingo Castillejo. It was included by Linneas’ son in Supplementum Plantarum in 1781. (2)
The name Castilleja reflects the Spanish colonial legacy in the Americas and the centuries of violence and indigenous erasure that have resulted. Mutis’ botanical collection work was supported by funds from the Spanish crown, and his expeditions collected tens of thousands of plants for an herbarium in Madrid. (3) This extraction of botanical knowledge contributed to a classification system that erases indigenous knowledge and relationships. Because the Spanish named the plant from their position in South American colonies, species from as far north as Alaska now bear a Spaniard’s name, despite no lived relationship with the plants from South America.
Colonial Taxonomy
Colonial Violence and Naming
Ecological Profile
Tsu'yaa'wa tsi'sinakĭa is a wildflower that can grow from 6-18” tall. It prefers full sun and rocky soil, and has several leafy stems that are topped in bright red-orange spikes. The flowers, however, are smaller and mostly hidden. It is hemiparasitic through its roots and gets a portion of its nutrients from other plants. It is a favorite source of nectar for hummingbirds, moths, and butterflies. (4)
Paintbrush plants are one of many plants known to indigenous peoples as part of a healthy life community. When paintbrushes are dwindling in numbers, it can be a sign that the ecosystem isn’t healthy.
The Crow people of Wyoming and Montana have used paintbrush plants for a range of uses. Children will pick the plant to suck on the sweet nectar, they can be laid on top of meat to keep the flies away, and the colorful bracts can be crushed and used as a pigment. The crushed bracts also can be put into open wounds to help induce healing, as the plants contain beneficial vitamins and nutrients.
Hummingbirds are a favorite pollinator of these plants for their sweet nectar. They are hemiparasitic, meaning they get some of their nutrients and energy from tapping into the roots of nearby plants, typically sagebrush. Additionally, in the mountain west modern agricultural practices are negatively impacting pollen counts and habitat availability, reducing the number of plants found over time. (nativemomery)
Indigenous Knowledge and Cultural Relationships
Uses
Human and Non-Human Relationships
Sources
April 6 & 2018. (n.d.). Jose Celestino Mutis. The Linda Hall Library. Retrieved April 22, 2026, from https://www.lindahall.org/about/news/scientist-of-the-day/jose-celestino-mutis/
BRIT - Native American Ethnobotany Database. (n.d.). Retrieved April 22, 2026, from http://naeb.brit.org/uses/8475/
Castilleja integra (Wholeleaf indian paintbrush) | Native Plants of North America. (n.d.). Retrieved April 22, 2026, from https://www.wildflower.org/plants/result.php?id_plant=cain14
Coxe, S. (1915). Ethnobotany of the Zuni Indians. https://hdl.handle.net/10088/91736
Indian Paintbrush. (n.d.). Native Memory Project. Retrieved February 14, 2026, from https://nativememoryproject.org/plant/indian-paintbrush/
Southwest Colorado Wildflowers, Castilleja scabrida. (n.d.). Retrieved February 14, 2026, from https://www.swcoloradowildflowers.com/Pink%20Enlarged%20Photo%20Pages/castilleja%20scabrida.htm
Towáni
Gray Pine
Foothill Pine
Digger Pine
Plant Identification
The gray pine has many names from the range of indigenous communities living in California. In the Maidu language, it is known as Towáni. Others include gapga (Klamath), c’ala’i (Yana), or xisi (Wintu, unripe pinenut) and chati (Wintu, ripe pinenut) among many others. (Hinton)
The tree was named Pinus sabiniana by David Douglas (after whom the Douglas Fir is named) in 1830, and named it after Joseph Sabine, secretary of the Royal Horticultural Society in London. Sabine was responsible for organizing many plant-hunting expeditions around the globe to “discover” new species and bring them back to England for display and cultivation. (museum Victoria)
Until recently, this plant was most known by the common name “Digger Pine.” Settlers to California saw how indigenous peoples used the tree for food and assigned it the racial epithet, a contemptuous term that indiscriminately insulted native peoples. This reflected settlers’ level of respect for both the indigenous people and the tree itself, which they saw no use for. Indigenous leaders raised their voices, and by the 1993 edition of The Jepsen Manual, a foremost resource for identifying California native plants, the term had become understood as a harmful name, replaced by Gray Pine, Ghost Pine, or Foothill Pine. (hinton)
Colonial Taxonomy Analysis
Colonial Violence and Naming
Ecological Profile
Towani grows in the Sierra Nevada foothills around California’s Central Valley. It grows quickly in dry soils and does not tolerate shade well, and they are often found isolated from other trees. They are known for surviving challenging environmental conditions and continuing to grow throughout the winter. (Powers). They are part of an apex forest ecosystem of blue oak-gray pine community, of which regularly burns play an important role. Under indigenous management, the forest would burn every 15-30 years. Towani is highly flammable, and the flames would kill most plants; however, this fire regime spurred seed germination and helped keep the species count in check (USFS).
Gray pine is a critical food source in a region of California that has been inhabited by many tribes over the centuries, with over a dozen different names for the tree from different communities (Hinton). The habitat spread of the tree may also have been supported by the movements of different tribes.
The seeds are rich in oil and protein and are a key food staple for local tribes. They bear the largest, tastiest, and most accessible nuts of any conifer in the region (Hinton). The green cones can be roasted, with a soft and syrupy interior. The inner bark can be eaten raw or ground into a flour. The resin can be chewed as a gun or used to make a tea. Turpentine from all pine resin has many medicinal uses, including internally for kidney and bladder complaints, externally as wound care, and inhaling oils for respiratory ailments (PFAF).
Although a critical food source for indigenous peoples, gray pine was very unpopular with settlers because it did not provide strong lumber or good shade. It has not been as heavily researched as other trees that are viewed as a better timber resource (Farris). It hosts many insects, and is the specific host for the Ips spinifer, an aggressive bark beetle, which encourages heavy production of resin as a defense (Powers)
Indigenous Knowledge and Cultural Relationships
Uses
Human and Non-Human Relationships
Colonial Violence and Naming
Plant Drawing
Conifer Database—Sabiniana. (n.d.). Retrieved May 4, 2026, from https://conifersociety.org/conifers/pinus-sabiniana
Farris, G. J. (1983). California pignolia: Seeds of pinus sabiniana. Economic Botany, 37(2), 201–206. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02858786
Hinton, L. (1996). Flutes of fire: Essays on California Indian languages (2nd print., rev.). Heyday Books.
Pinus sabiniana. (n.d.). Retrieved May 4, 2026, from https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/tree/pinsab/all.html
Pinus sabiniana. (2026). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pinus_sabiniana&oldid=1351974916
Pinus sabiniana Dougl. (n.d.). Retrieved May 4, 2026, from https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/misc/ag_654/volume_1/pinus/sabiniana.htm
Royal Horticultural Society. (n.d.). Museums Victoria Collections. Retrieved May 4, 2026, from https://collections.museumsvictoria.com.au/articles/2423
Sources
cxa?z-et
Engelmann Spruce
Plant Identification
The Engelmann Spruce is widely distributed throughout the mountains of Western North America, from British Columbia down to Arizona and New Mexico. The Thompson tribe in British Columbia know it as cxa?z-et, which means “rustling-plant” (Turner).
The plant’s Latin name is Picea engelmannii. Both the common and Latin name honor George Engelmann, a German doctor-turned-botanist who played a pivotal role in collecting specimens from the Western US during the 19th century’s era of westward expansion. After a childhood in Germany, Engelmann settled in St. Louis to develop his medical and botanical practices. He was an influential friend to Henry Shaw, and even helped convince the philanthropist that his Missouri Botanical Garden should become a research garden rather than a simple pleasure grounds. There is a bust of Engelmann on display at the garden’s Strassenfest German Garden, and an endowed professorship of botany at Washington University in his name (MBG). When we consider St. Louis as the “Gateway to the West”, for good or for ill, George Engelmann’s botanical expeditions are part of the history.
The plant was named by Charles Parry after “discovering” it on the slopes of Pikes Peak, Colorado in 1862, and named it after his mentor Engelmann (trees and shrubs online). This specific history erases and flattens any other indigenous relationships and histories with this plant, forever prioritizing the connection to a European settler through its name.
Colonial Taxonomy Analysis
Colonial Violence and Naming
This plant is a major component of high-elevation plant communities in the Rocky Mountains. It occurs in widespread forests within the subalpine fir or white fir habitat zones. It provides forage and habitat for a wide variety of small and large wildlife species. The seeds are eaten by squirrels, chipmunks, mice, and voles, as well as chickadees, nuthatches, and crossbills. (USDA)
Engelmann spruce has high cultural significance among many indigenous tribes in the Rocky Mountains, including the Thompson and Lillooet tribes of British Columbia, Canada. It is an extremely useful plant that provides for the community in many ways. This is reflected in cultural stories, where this tree is mentioned as being used by other more important characters. Conifer boughs used as scents and cleaning agents, day-to-day and in rituals for puberty, illness, death, and bereavement (Turner)
This plant is an important commercial wood in the United States. Lumber is used for home construction and for prefabricated wood products (USFS). It is also sourced for use in musical instruments like pianos, guitars, and violins. (USDA). Among the Thompson and Lillooet groups in British Columbia, various parts of the tree are used for cordage, roofing, canoes, baskets, utensils, canoes, incense/scent, and general medicine.
As a timber harvest tree, Engelmann spruce is commonly planted in nursery contexts, isolated from its typical forest community. It has been heavily studied by the timber industry to maximize yield. (USFS) It is an iconic species of the Rocky Mountains, contributing significantly to the character of the region and the cultural ideas that come along with it.
Ecological Profile
Human and Non-Human Relationships
Uses
Indigenous Knowledge and Cultural Relationships
Sources
mbgadmin. (2024, July 15). Garden History: Who Was Dr. George Engelmann? Discover + Share. https://discoverandshare.org/2024/07/15/garden-history-george-engelmann/
Peterson, J. S. (n.d.). ENGELMANN SPRUCE.
Picea engelmannii. (n.d.). Retrieved May 4, 2026, from https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/plants/tree/piceng/all.html
Picea engelmannii—Trees and Shrubs Online. (n.d.). Retrieved May 4, 2026, from https://www.treesandshrubsonline.org/articles/picea/picea-engelmannii/
Turner, N. J. (1988). Ethnobotany of coniferous trees in Thompson and Lillooet interior salish of British Columbia. Economic Botany, 42(2), 177–194. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02858918
This plant is an iconic plant of the Sonoran Desert and the people who live there. In the Hohokam (O’odham) language, it’s called Ko'okmaḍ.
The Latin name is Parkinsonia florida. John Parkinson was an early pioneer of botanical sciences, one of the first in England to blend medical and scientific understandings of plants. He became the royal botanist for King Charles I, and in 1629 published what is considered the first purely horticultural book in England. (linda hall) Florida means “flowery” in Spanish, who were the main colonizers of the desert southwest region. The common name, Palo Verde, also comes from Spanish for “green stick”. This name reduces the plant to a visual impression, telling us nothing about its relationships or functions in the ecosystem and for people.
The genus contains roughly 12 species of shrubs and small trees from Africa and the Americas. Linnaeus named it in his 1758 Systema Natura to honor Parkinson’s early contributions. He accompanied trading expeditions to North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula to collect botanical specimens and try to grow them in England.(JHI) As an early scientist, Parkinson laid the groundwork for the future of herbariums and botanical nomenclature as a way of codifying, organizing, and ultimately controlling the plant world for colonial gain.
Ko'okmaḍ
Palo Verde
Blue Palo Verde
Plant Identification
Colonial Violence and Naming
Colonial Taxonomy
Ecological Profile
Palo Verde is a keystone species of the Sonoran Desert of the Southwest United States. Blue Palo Verde can grow up to 25-30' tall, as opposed to its shrubby brother the Foothill Palo Verde. It is highly adapted to the desert environment through a deep taproot that can access water underground & photosynthesis through its green bark, which allows for small leaves with little evapotranspiration water loss. It is a food sources for birds and rodents, and attracts many pollinators when it flowers. (Arizona)
Palo verde is one of the primary plants in the Sonoran desert ecosystem, and indigenous peoples have an intimate relationship with the plant. Its showy flowering in the spring acts as an important marker of seasonal change.
The seeds and seedpods can be eaten in a variety of ways, including ground into a flour. The flowers are also edible. The O’odham have used the strong wood to build pit houses and other structures (olas kii).
The plant acts as a nurse tree for the saguaro, giving shade and protections to seedlings in their vulnerable early years. It is a favorite host for the larvae of the plao verde beetle, who have co-evolved with the tree to eat its dead wood. (spadefoor). As one of the primary trees and shrubs of the ecosystem, Palo Verde create microhabitats that support life in the desert. Today it is the official tree for the state of Arizona and can be found as a street tree in Phoenix and other cities. It continues to play a part in the cultural identity of the region.
Human and Non-Human Relationships
Uses
Indigenous Knowledge and Cultural Relationships
Sources
Arizona State Tree: The Arizona Native Plant Society. (n.d.). Retrieved April 21, 2026, from https://aznps.com/arizona-state-tree/
August 6 & 2015. (n.d.). John Parkinson. The Linda Hall Library. Retrieved May 5, 2026, from https://www.lindahall.org/about/news/scientist-of-the-day/john-parkinson/
Blue Palo Verde (Parkinsonia florida). (n.d.). Spadefoot Nursery, Inc. Retrieved May 5, 2026, from https://www.spadefootnursery.com/trees-m-thru-z/blue-palo-verde-parkinsonia-florida
John Parkinson and the Rise of Botany in the 17th Century – JHI Blog. (n.d.). Retrieved May 5, 2026, from https://www.jhiblog.org/2018/11/14/john-parkinson-and-the-rise-of-botany-in-the-17th-century/
‘Olas Kii Pithouse: Background Information. (2025, April 12). PROJECT ARCHAEOLOGY. https://projectarchaeology.org/olas-kii-pithouse-background/
Parkinsonia florida. (n.d.). Retrieved April 21, 2026, from https://atlas.mammillarias.org/parkinsonia_florida.htm
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Metl
Maguey
Agave
Century plant
Plant Identification
This plant is native to modern-day Mexico, where it has been cultivated for centuries. The Nahuatl word for the plant is Metl.
The most commonly used name for this plant today is Maguey. The name was adopted into the Spanish language after Spanish colonizers encountered a similar plant in the Caribbean. The local Taino (Arawak) peoples called the plant Maguey. The plant’s Latin name is Agave americana, in reference to its location in the “new world”.
The plant was named by Linnaeus from across the ocean as part of the western project of categorizing all plants into one system.
Colonial Taxonomy
Colonial Violence and Naming
The maguey plant is a large succulent that grows in the arid highlands of Mesoamerica. Its leaves spread from 6-10’ in all directions and they are edged with sharp spikes. After 10-25 years, the plant send up a single flowering stalk up to 30’ tall with large yellow flowers, after which the main plant dies. This phenomenon gives it the common name “century plant”. The plants are mostly pollinated by bats, followed by moths and bees.
Maguey was a critically important plant to the cultural identity of the Nahuatl people. Spines gathered from the leaves were revered and used to draw blood in ceremonies. Maguey products were often given for tributes to Teotihuacan, the political and military power of the region. Pulque, the alcoholic drink that is made from the maguey’s sweet sap, played an important role in public ceremonies and festivities and is still consumed today.
Maguey is a remarkably useful plant that has been cultivated for centuries. The sweet sap at the center of the plant is harvested as aguamiel, which can be fermented into the alcoholic beverage pulque. Pulque was widely consumed across Mesoamerica and played an important role in public ceremonies and festivities. Fibers from the plant can be woven into fabric and sandals or twisted into rope. Its thick center stalk can be used as the main beam for huts, and roofs can be constructed from its leaves. The leaves can be roasted and eaten, and it attracts grubs which can be harvested and cooked.
The plant’s growth is often organized by humans, as it has been in cultivation for centuries. However, in order to harvest aguamiel and other products without killing the plant, the people who grow maguey are often very in tune with the lifecycles and health of the plants. There is an ancient relationship between maguey and indigenous peoples.
Ecological Profile
Uses
Human and Non-Human Relationships
Indigenous Knowledge and Cultural Relationships
Sources
Agave americana (American Aloe, American Century Plant, Century Plant, Maguey, Mexican Soap Plant) | North Carolina Extension Gardener Plant Toolbox. (n.d.). Retrieved May 5, 2026, from https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/agave-americana/
Lather, D. (2023, October 5). The Importance of Agave to Prehistoric Humans in Mesoamerica. Maguey Melate. https://www.magueymelate.com/the-importance-of-agave-to-prehistoric-humans-in-mesoamerica/
maguey. | Nahuatl Dictionary. (n.d.). Retrieved May 4, 2026, from https://nahuatl.wired-humanities.org/content/maguey
Maguey (century plant). (n.d.). Retrieved May 4, 2026, from https://www.mexicolore.co.uk/aztecs/flora-and-fauna/century-plant-maguey
Maguey—Etymology, Origin & Meaning. (n.d.). Etymonline. Retrieved May 4, 2026, from https://www.etymonline.com/word/maguey
Ichcatl
Upland Cotton
Mexican Cotton
The species of cotton that now accounts for 90% of the cotton production in the world originated in Mesoamerica. The Nahuatl name for unspun cotton is Ichcatl. (Nahuatl dictionary)
The Latin name for this plant is Gossypium hirsutum. Gossypium comes form the Latin “gossipion” for cotton, and hirsutum means hairy or rough in reference to the stems. The common names refer to the places where Europeans first encountered this variety of cotton, although different varieties are native around the globe.
Different varieties of cotton are native around the globe and it is one of the most significant plants in human history. Everyone has heard of cotton, but the global industry has overwhelmingly turned to cultivation of one singular species. At this point in history, nuances between different global species of cotton has been flattened into one species in the global understanding.
Plant Identification
Colonial Violence and Naming
Colonial Taxonomy
Cotton is native to subtropical regions around the world. Although a perennial tree capable of growing up to 20’ in the tropics, It has been domesticated widely as a shrubby annual plant in temperate climates. Fertilized flowers develop into small pods called bolls, which mature into seeds with fibrous hairs. These fibers are then processed and woven into the fabric we take for granted today. It is subject to many “pests” that damage economic production, most notably the boll weevil that created an economic crisis in the American cotton production system in the early 1900s (Britannica).
In the Aztec empire, cotton was used for garments, trade, and as a soft armor in battle. Cotton was being woven and spun into clothing in India, Pakistan, and Egypt as early as 3000 BCE. Because it take time, energy, and skill to turn cotton bolls into cloth, cotton fabrics have been a valuable and desirable trade good for millenia.
Cotton is one of the most valuable and useful plants in human history. When woven as a fabric, cotton is soft, pliable, holds dyes well, easily washable, and biodegradable.
Eli Whitney’s invention of the cotton gin in 1793 – a more efficient way to remove seeds from the fibrous bolls as part of processing cotton – can be a shorthand reference for the start of the Industrial Revolution and our contemporary world. Extractive capitalist systems have been part of the relationship with cotton for centuries, particularly in the slave economy of the American South and elsewhere in the Americas. By 1850 there were 3.2 million slaves working in the 15 slave states of the US, and over 1.8 million of them were working to satisfy “King Cotton” (PBS). The inhumane conditions of slavery are a deep injustice that still have impacts to this day. The legacy of cotton is deep and complex, and it is one of the most significant plants in human history.
Ecological Profile
Indigenous Knowledge and Cultural Relationships
Human and Non-Human Relationships
Uses
Sources
Beckert, S. (2015). Empire of cotton: A global history (First Vintage Books edition.). Vintage Books. http://libproxy.wustl.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&scope=site&db=nlebk&db=nlabk&AN=784626
Cotton | Description, Fiber, History, Production, Uses, Botanical Name, & Facts | Britannica. (2026, March 28). https://www.britannica.com/topic/cotton-fibre-and-plant
Cotton and Mesoamerica. (n.d.). Retrieved May 5, 2026, from https://www.mexicolore.co.uk/aztecs/home/cotton-and-mesoamerica
fultonk. (2013, January 7). The Second Middle Passage | African American History Blog. The African Americans: Many Rivers to Cross. https://www.pbs.org/wnet/african-americans-many-rivers-to-cross/history/what-was-the-2nd-middle-passage/
ichcatl. | Nahuatl Dictionary. (n.d.). Retrieved May 4, 2026, from https://nahuatl.wired-humanities.org/content/ichcatl
The Story of Cotton- History of Cotton. (n.d.). Retrieved May 4, 2026, from https://www.cotton.org/pubs/cottoncounts/story/
Sources
Adam Lonicer | Botany. (n.d.). Retrieved May 3, 2026, from https://botany.edwardworthlibrary.ie/herbals/sixteenth-century/adam-lonicer/
Bush Honeysuckles. (n.d.). Missouri Department of Conservation. Retrieved May 4, 2026, from https://mdc.mo.gov/discover-nature/field-guide/bush-honeysuckles
Lapcevic, K. (2016, June 15). Honeysuckle Uses: Foraging, Simple Herbal Remedies & Recipes. Homespun Seasonal Living. https://homespunseasonalliving.com/using-honeysuckle-for-food-and-medicine/
Lonicera maackii (Amur Honeysuckle, Bush Honeysuckle) | North Carolina Extension Gardener Plant Toolbox. (n.d.). Retrieved May 4, 2026, from https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/lonicera-maackii/
Nanai. (n.d.). Retrieved May 4, 2026, from https://mobile.atlaskmns.ru/page/en/people_nanaicy.html
Sennikov, A. N., & Sokolova, I. V. (2023). Richard Maack and his contributions to the botany of Siberia. Nordic Journal of Botany, 2023(4), e03873. https://doi.org/10.1111/njb.03873
金银忍冬
(Jin yin ren dong)
Bush Honeysuckle
Amur Honeysuckle
Plant Identification
Bush honeysuckle is natively from the Amur River region straddling modern-day Russia, China, and Mongolia. Jin yin ren dong, the Chinese name, translates to "gold and silver honeysuckle" in reference to its flowers, which open white and fade to yellow (eFloras)
Lonicera maackiLonincera: named after 16th century German botanist Adam Lonicer, named by Linneaus. He was also a printer, publisher, naturalist. Organized his books on books of genesis
Maacki: named after Richard Maack, 19th century Russian botanist. Maack was part of a series of scientific expeditions into the Amur River region of Siberia, which had been geopolitically contested by both the Russian and Chinese empires.
Honeysuckle as genus of 159 species distributed across northern hemisphere. Euro-centric, named after a German and a Russian. The expeditions that Maack participated in were driven both by the hope for scientific discoveries and by the opportunity to locate and extract natural resources for the empire. They were often accompanied by military expeditions and Russian colonists that would ensure the region belonged to Russia. (Sennikov and Sokolova)
Colonial Taxonomy
Colonial Violence and Naming
Ecological Profile
Bush Honeysuckle is native to the Amur River region that acts as a border between modern-day Russia and China in far East Asia. It is a dense understory shrub that can adapt to many soil types and sun conditions. It produces showy flowers and bright red fruits that attract birds. It was brought to North America in the late 19th century as an ornamental plant, but has since escaped cultivation and is widely considered harmful to local ecosystems because of its ability to quickly outcompete and shade out native plants. It is one of the first plants to leaf out in the spring and one of the last to lose its leaves in the fall, and the fruits, while plentiful, do not provide sufficient nutrients to be healthy bird feed. (plants NCSU)
Indigenous groups that lived with this plant in the Amur River region include the Nanai, Nivkj, Ulch, Udege, Oroch, and Negidal. While little information is available in English on relationships with specific plants, these peoples all have cosmologies that connect people with the natural world. (atlas)
Honeysuckle flowers are edible, with sweet nectar. The berries, however, are slightly poisonous to humans. Honeysuckle tea can also be made to cool hot flashes, fevers, and sunstroke, as it has a cooling effect on the body. (homespun)
Bush Honeysuckle are considered highly invasive in Missouri and there are many resources available for their removal, including burning, mechanical removal of the roots, and herbicide. People typically have a negative relationship with this plant because the common story is that they are invasive and should never be planted. (MDC)
Human and Non-Human Relationships
Uses
Indigenous Knowledge and Cultural Relationships
Roumman
Pomegranate
Pomegranate is an ancient plant that has been widely cultivated from the middle east to the Indian plateau and beyond. In Arabic, the pomegranate is known as roumann. The word “pomegranate” roughly translates to “seeded apple” in reference to its fruits (Ezzel).
The plant’s Latin name is Punica granatum. Punica refers to the Phoenecian region where it was first encountered by the Romans, and granatum means “many seeds” (Ezzel).
Pomegranate is native from Iran to Himalayas and has been cultivated in Egypt and North Africa. It grows as a shrub or small tree, pruned to keep it small. Different cultivars grown in different regions, contributing to a wide variety of cultural connections. Pomegranate trees are self-pollinated or cross-pollinated by insects, with little wind dispersal. They grow best in subtropical regions with cool winters and hot summers in a wide range of soils. (purdue)
Pomegranate is native from Iran to Himalayas and has been cultivated in Egypt and North Africa. It grows as a shrub or small tree, pruned to keep it small. Different cultivars grown in different regions, contributing to a wide variety of cultural connections. Pomegranate trees are self-pollinated or cross-pollinated by insects, with little wind dispersal. They grow best in subtropical regions with cool winters and hot summers in a wide range of soils. (purdue)
Plant Identification
Colonial Taxonomy
Colonial Violence and Naming
Ecological Profile
Pomegranate has many medicinal and symbolic purposes. There is archeological, artistic, and textual evidence of cultivation and symbolic meaning from ancient Persia, Egypt, Greece, Pakistan, and India. In Lebanon, as an evergreen tree it acts as a symbol of hope and eternal life. It is often given as a house gift for couples moving into a new home, symbolizing prosperity with its many seeds. The multiple fruits within a single hull represent fertility. In Greek mythology, Hades tempts Persephone to the underworld with pomegranate seeds. Islamic thought placed pomegranate trees in the garden of Eden as one of the four holy trees, and is a symbol of eternal life in Virgin Mary and Jesus statues throughout the Christian world. As Lebanese blogger Karenkaram writes, “Where I’m from we swallow the seeds so that a pomegranate has the chance to become a tree in our souls. We swallow the seeds because it reminds us of our land, of its richness and its fruitiness."
The fruit and seeds are eaten in abundance In Lebanon, India, and elsewhere. Pomegranate juice is a popular beverage, and pomegranate molasses is also popular. Tannins from all parts of the plant have been used for curing leather. The rind and flowers make good dyes for textiles and the wood is well suited for handicrafts and walking sticks (Purdue).
The pomegranate is a cultural symbol for many, evocative of deep personal relationships with home. Ancient trade networks are traceable through archeological evidence of pomegranate consumption and cultivation, and the plant’s history is deeply interwoven with the development of human culture in the Mediterranean, Middle East, and India.
Indigenous Knowledge and Cultural Relationships
Uses
Human and Non-Human Relationships
Sources
El-Din, D. E., & Elkassrawy, S. (2018). Pomegranates of ancient Egypt: Representations, uses and religious significance. Proceedings of the Fourth British Egyptology Congress, 7-9 September 2018, University of Manchester. https://www.academia.edu/44213156/Pomegranates_of_ancient_Egypt_representations_uses_and_religious_significance
karenkaram. (2015, December 23). The Ruby Jewel of Lebanon. 365 Days of Lebanon. https://365daysoflebanon.com/2015/12/23/the-ruby-jewel-of-lebanon/
Pomegranate. (n.d.). Retrieved May 4, 2026, from https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/pomegranate.html
Pomegranates, from Antiquity to the present day | alimentarium. (n.d.). Retrieved May 4, 2026, from https://www.alimentarium.org/en/story/pomegranates-antiquity-present-day